Review Article
Viewing Ethnocentrism and Ethnorelativism Through a Two-factor Lens: A Dual-spectrum Model for Intercultural Development
Hugh Jiliang Liu*
Issue:
Volume 11, Issue 2, April 2026
Pages:
24-33
Received:
10 February 2026
Accepted:
24 February 2026
Published:
5 March 2026
Abstract: Intercultural literature often treats ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism as opposite ends of a single continuum. This paper challenges that assumption by adapting Herzberg’s two-factor theory to propose a dual-spectrum model: (1) a “hygiene” axis (ethnocentrism ↔ absence of ethnocentrism) that prevents harm, and (2) a “motivator” axis (absence of ethnorelativism ↔ ethnorelativism) that enables growth. This paper argues that reducing ethnocentrism does not automatically produce ethnorelativism, and that gains in ethnorelativism can coexist with stress-activated in-group bias which is the key concept of ethnocentrism. This dual-spectrum model can explain why bias reduction does not automatically yield adaptive collaboration and why sophisticated perspective-taking can still buckle under stress. This paper translates the model into testable propositions, a two-dimensional (2×2) typology, a portfolio of instruments for measurements, and intervention strategies. It also specifies implications for research, education, and organisational practice, especially under boundary conditions in cultural and organisational contexts, to clarify further when the axes move together, lag, or diverge. This paper also provides examples of educational program design that deliberately pair “anti-deficit” (hygiene) interventions with “growth-positive” (motivator) interventions. Hygiene secures the floor, and motivators raise the ceiling.
Abstract: Intercultural literature often treats ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism as opposite ends of a single continuum. This paper challenges that assumption by adapting Herzberg’s two-factor theory to propose a dual-spectrum model: (1) a “hygiene” axis (ethnocentrism ↔ absence of ethnocentrism) that prevents harm, and (2) a “motivator” axis (absence of et...
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Review Article
How Intersectionality Influences Career Aspirations and Decision-Making Among Ghanaian Youth
Issue:
Volume 11, Issue 2, April 2026
Pages:
34-43
Received:
13 February 2026
Accepted:
26 February 2026
Published:
12 March 2026
Abstract: The rate of unemployment among the youth in Ghana is continuously high, with persistent gender disparities across various sectors of the economy. A situation of this sort justifies exploring the complex interactions among identity, context, and opportunity in the global south, including Ghana. The study examined the influences of some dimensions on the youth's career aspirations and decision-making process in Ghana. Drawing on intersectionality, aspiration, and social cognitive career theories, an integrated theoretical framework was used to explore how interactions among the youth's gender, socio-economic status, and cultural background influence the formation and maturation of career aspirations. The researchers asserted that career aspirations stem from complex interactions between structural limitations and personal or solitary decision-making competence, with sex serving as the main narrative shaping the perspective of what lies ahead. The study, therefore, reinforces the role of intersectionality theory in appreciating the inequalities in aspirations, confirming how diverse power structures generally determine or affect the youth's ability to aspire or pursue their dreams. The study also contributes to the scope of the social cognitive career theory by illustrating how contextual hurdles act as both endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) impediments in the development of future or potential self-awareness. Ultimately, the paper accentuates the implications of the social cognitive career theory for policy relevant to education, career interventions, and future research within the context of developing countries.
Abstract: The rate of unemployment among the youth in Ghana is continuously high, with persistent gender disparities across various sectors of the economy. A situation of this sort justifies exploring the complex interactions among identity, context, and opportunity in the global south, including Ghana. The study examined the influences of some dimensions on...
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Research Article
Inclusive Education in India: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Practices Toward Learning Without Boundaries
Dipankar Paul*,
Sanjib Kumar Roy
Issue:
Volume 11, Issue 2, April 2026
Pages:
44-57
Received:
11 February 2026
Accepted:
3 March 2026
Published:
16 March 2026
DOI:
10.11648/j.ijecs.20261102.13
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Abstract: Inclusive education in India signifies a constitutional, philosophical, and pedagogical movement toward equity, dignity, and human rights. Grounded in both indigenous educational thought and global frameworks such as the Salamanca Statement and Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), it envisions schools where every learner, irrespective of caste, gender, ability, language, or socioeconomic background, can learn and participate fully. This theoretical study analyzes the evolution of inclusive education from pre-independence reform movements to contemporary frameworks such as the Right to Education Act (2009), Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016), National Education Policy (2020), and National Curriculum Framework for School Education (2023). Using a PRISMA informed systematic review of key documents, this study traced historical development, reviews constitutional and policy provisions, examines inclusive pedagogical practices, and identifies persistent challenges. The findings show that India has developed a strong legal and policy framework to support inclusive education. Recent reforms emphasize multilingual learning, flexible curriculum, competency based assessment, digital access, and teacher training. However, several challenges remain. Inadequate infrastructure, limited teacher preparation, rigid examination systems, digital inequality, and social biases continue to restrict full participation of marginalized learners. The study concludes that inclusive education must go beyond policy statements and become a lived classroom practice. Achieving “learning without boundaries” requires better teacher support, improved infrastructure, coordinated governance, and a change in mindset that values diversity as a strength rather than a limitation.
Abstract: Inclusive education in India signifies a constitutional, philosophical, and pedagogical movement toward equity, dignity, and human rights. Grounded in both indigenous educational thought and global frameworks such as the Salamanca Statement and Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), it envisions schools where every learner, irrespective of caste, ...
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